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1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 WHAT IS AN OPERATING SYSTEM? 1.1.1 The Operating System as an Extended Machine 1.1.2 The Operating System as a Resource Manager 1.2 HISTORY OF OPERATING SYSTEMS 1.2.1 The First Generation 1.2.2 The Second Generation 1.2.3 The Third Generation 1.2.4 The Fourth Generation 1.3 COMPUTER HARDWARE REVIEW 1.3.1 Processors 1.3.2 Memory 1.3.3 Disks 1.3.4 Tapes 1.3.5 I/O Devices 1.3.6 Buses 1.3.7 Booting the Computer 1.4 THE OPERATING SYSTEM ZOO 1.4.1 Mainframe Operating Systems 1.4.2 Server Operating Systems 1.4.3 Multiprocessor Operating Systems 1.4.4 Personal Computer Operating Systems 1.4.5 Handheld Computer Operating Systems 1.4.6 Embedded Operating Systems. 1.4.7 Sensor Node Operating Systems 1.4.8 Real-Time Operating Systems 1.4.9 Smart Card Operating Systems 1.5 OPERATING SYSTEM CONCEPTS 1.5.1 Processes 1.5.2 Address Spaces 1.5.3 Files 1.5.4 Input/Output 1.5.5 Protection 1.5.6 The Shell 1.5.7 Ontogeny Recapitulates Phylogeny 1.6 SYSTEM CALLS 1.6.1 System Calls for Process Management 1.6.2 System Calls for File Management 1.6.3 System Calls for Directory Management 1.6.4 Miscellaneous System Calls 1.6.5 The Windows Win32 API 1.7 OPERATING SYSTEM STRUCTURE 1.7.1 Monolithic Systems 1.7.2 Layered Systems 1.7.3 Microkernels 1.7.4 Client-Server Model 1.7.5 Virtual Machines 1.7.6 Exokernels 1.8 THE WORLD ACCORDING TO C 1.8.1 The C Language 1.8.2 Header Files 1.8.3 Large Programming Projects 1.8.4 The Model of Run Time 1.9 RESEARCH ON OPERATING SYSTEMS 1.10 OUTLINE OF THE REST OF THIS BOOK 1.11 METRIC UNITS 1.12 SUMMARY 2 PROCESSES AND THREADS 2.1 PROCESSES 2.1.1 The Process Model 2.1.2 Process Creation 2.1.3 Process Termination 2.1.4 Process Hierarchies 2.1.5 Process States 2.1.6 Implementation of Processes 2.1.7 Modeling Multiprogramming 2.2 THREADS 2.2.1 Thread Usage 2.2.2 The Classical Thread Model 2.2.3 POSIX Threads 2.2.4 Implementing Threads in User Space 2.2.5 Implementing Threads in the Kernel 2.2.6 Hybrid Implementations 2.2.7 Scheduler Activations 2.2.8 Pop-Up Threads 2.2.9 Making Single-Threaded Code Multithreaded 2.3 INTERPROCESS COMMUNICATION 2.3.1 Race Conditions 2.3.2 Critical Regions 2.3.3 Mutual Exclusion with Busy Waiting 2.3.4 Sleep and Wakeup 2.3.5 Semaphores 2.3.6 Mutexes 2.3.7 Monitors 2.3.8 Message Passing 2.3.9 Barriers 2.4 SCHEDULING 2.4.1 Introduction to Scheduling 2.4.2 Scheduling in Batch Systems 2.4.3 Scheduling in Interactive Systems 2.4.4 Scheduling in Real-Time Systems 2.4.5 Policy versus Mechanism 2.4.6 Thread Scheduling 2.5 CLASSICAL IPC PROBLEMS 2.5.1 The Dining Philosophers Problem 2.5.2 The Readers and Writers Problem 2.6 RESEARCH ON PROCESSES AND THREADS 2.7 SUMMARY 3 MEMORY MANAGEMENT 3.1 NO MEMORY ABSTRACTION 3.2 A MEMORY ABSTRACTION: ADDRESS SPACES 3.2.1 The Notion of an Address Space 3.2.2 Swapping 3.2.3 Managing Free Memory 3.3 VIRTUAL MEMORY 3.3.1 Paging 3.3.2 Page Tables 3.3.3 Speeding Up Paging 3.3.4 Page Tables for Large Memories 3.4 PAGE LACEMENT ALGORITHMS 3.4.1 The Optimal Page Replacement Algorithm 3.4.2 The Not Recently Used Page Replacement Algorithm 3.4.3 The First-In, First-Out 3.4.4 The Second Chance Page Replacement Algorithm 3.4.5 The Clock Page Replacement Algorithm 3.4.6 The Least Recently Used 3.4.7 Simulating LRU in Software 3.4.8 The Working Set Page Replacement Algorithm 3.4.9 The WSClock Page Replacement Algorithm 3.4.10 Summary of Page Replacement Algorithms 3.5 DESIGN ISSUES FOR PAGING SYSTEMS 3.5.1 Local versus Global Allocation Policies 3.5.2 Load Control 3.5.3 Page Size 3.5.4 Separate Instruction and Data Spaces 3.5.5 Shared Pages 3.5.6 Shared Libraries 3.5.7 Mapped Files 3.5.8 Cleaning Policy 3.5.9 Virtual Memory Interface 3.6 IMPLEMENTATION ISSUES 3.6.1 Operating System Involvement with Paging 3.6.2 Page Fault Handling 3.6.3 Instruction Backup 3.6.4 Locking Pages in Memory 3.6.5 Backing Store 3.6.6 Separation of Policy and Mechanism 3.7 SEGMENTATION 3.7.1 Implementation of Pure Segmentation 3.7.2 Segmentation with Paging: MULTICS 3.7.3 Segmentation with Paging: The Intel Pentium 3.8 RESEARCH ON MEMORY MANAGEMENT 3.9 SUMMARY 4 FILE SYSTEMS 4.1 FILES 4.1.1 File Naming 4.1.2 File Structure 4.1.3 File Types 4.1.4 File Access 4.1.5 File Attributes 4.1.6 File Operations 4.1.7 An Example Program Using File System Calls 4.2 DIRECTORIES 4.2.1 Single-Level Directory Systems 4.2.2 Hierarchical Directory Systems 4.2.3 Path Names 4.2.4 Directory Operations 4.3 FILE SYSTEM IMPLEMENTATION 4.3.1 File System Layout 4.3.2 Implementing Files 4.3.3 Implementing Directories 4.3.4 Shared Files 4.3.5 Log-Structured File Systems 4.3.6 Journaling File Systems 4.3.7 Virtual File Systems 4.4 FILE SYSTEM MANAGEMENT AND OPTIMIZATION 4.4.1 Disk Space Management 4.4.2 File System Backups 4.4.3 File System Consistency 4.4.4 File System Performance 4.4.5 Defragmenting Disks 4.5 EXAMPLE FILE SYSTEMS 4.5.1 CD-ROM File Systems 4.5.2 The MS-DOS File System 4.5.3 The UNIX V7 File System 4.6 RESEARCH ON FILE SYSTEMS 4.7 SUMMARY 5 INPUT/OUTPUT 5.1 PRINCIPLES OF I/O HARDWARE 5.1.1 I/O Devices 5.1.2 Device Controllers 5.1.3 Memory-Mapped I/O 5.1.4 Direct Memory Access 5.1.5 Interrupts Revisited 5.2 PRINCIPLES OF I/O SOFTWARE 5.2.1 Goals of the I/O Software 5.2.2 Programmed I/O 5.2.3 Interrupt-Driven I/O 5.2.4 I/O Using DMA 5.3 I/O SOFTWARE LAYERS 5.3.1 Interrupt Handlers 5.3.2 Device Drivers 5.3.3 Device-Independent I/O Software 5.3.4 User-Space I/O Software 5.4 DISKS 5.4.1 Disk Hardware 5.4.2 Disk Formatting 5.4.3 Disk Arm Scheduling Algorithms 5.4.4 Error Handling 5.4.5 Stable Storage 5.5 CLOCKS 5.5.1 Clock Hardware 5.5.2 Clock Software 5.5.3 Soft Timers 5.6 USER INTERFACES: KEYBOARD, MOUSE, MONITOR 5.6.1 Input Software 5.6.2 Output Software 5.7 THIN CLIENTS 5.8 POWER MANAGEMENT 5.8.1 Hardware Issues 5.8.2 Operating System Issues: 5.8.3 Application Program Issues 5.9 RESEARCH ON INPUT/OUTPUT 5.10 SUMMARY 6 DEADLOCKS 6.1 RESOURCES 6.1.1 Preemptable and Nonpreemptable Resources 6.1.2 Resource Acquisition 6.2 INTRODUCTION TO DEADLOCKS 6.2.1 Conditions for Resource Deadlocks 6.2.2 Deadlock Modeling 6.3 THE OSTRICH ALGORITHM 6.4 DEADLOCK DETECTION AND RECOVERY 6.4.1 Deadlock Detection with One Resource of Each Type 6.4.2 Deadlock Detection with Multiple Resources of Each Type 6.4.3 Recovery from Deadlock 6.5 DEADLOCK AVOIDANCE 6.5.1 Resource Trajectories 6.5.2 Safe and Unsafe States 6.5.3 The Banker’s Algorithm for a Single Resource 6.5.4 The Banker’s Algorithm for Multiple Resources 6.6 DEADLOCK PREVENTION 6.6.1 Attacking the Mutual Exclusion Condition 6.6.2 Attacking the Hold and Wait Condition 6.6.3 Attacking the No Preemption Condition 6.6.4 Attacking the Circular Wait Condition 6.7 OTHER ISSUES 6.7.1 Two-Phase Locking 6.7.2 Communication Deadlocks 6.7.3 Livelock 6.7.4 Starvation 6.8 RESEARCH ON DEADLOCKS 6.9 SUMMARY 7 MULTIMEDIA OPERATING SYSTEMS 7.1 INTRODUCTION TO MULTIMEDIA 7.2 MULTIMEDIA FILES 7.2.1 Video Encoding 7.2.2 Audio Encoding 7.3 VIDEO COMPRESSION 7.3.1 The JPEG Standard 7.3.2 The MPEG Standard 7.4 AUDIO COMPRESSION 7.5 MULTIMEDIA PROCESS SCHEDULING 7.5.1 Scheduling Homogeneous Processes 7.5.2 General Real-Time Scheduling 7.5.3 Rate Monotonic Scheduling 7.5.4 Earliest Deadline First Scheduling 7.6 MULTIMEDIA FILE SYSTEM PARADIGMS 7.6.1 VCR Control Functions 7.6.2 Near Video on Demand 7.6.3 Near Video on Demand with VCR Functions 7.7 FILE PLACEMENT 7.7.1 Placing a File on a Single Disk 7.7.2 Two Alternative File Organization Strategies 7.7.3 Placing Files for Near Video on Demand 7.7.4 Placing Multiple Files on a Single Disk 7.7.5 Placing Files on Multiple Disks 7.8 CACHING 7.8.1 Block Caching 7.8.2 File Caching 7.9 DISK SCHEDULING FOR MULTIMEDIA 7.9.1 Static Disk Scheduling 7.9.2 Dynamic Disk Scheduling 7.10 RESEARCH ON MULTIMEDIA 7.11 SUMMARY 8 MULTIPLE PROCESSOR SYSTEMS 8.1 MULTIPROCESSORS 8.1.1 Multiprocessor Hardware 8.1.2 Multiprocessor Operating System Types 8.1.3 Multiprocessor Synchronization 8.1.4 Multiprocessor Scheduling 8.2 MULTICOMPUTERS 8.2.1 Multicomputer Hardware 8.2.2 Low-Level Communication Software 8.2.3 User-Level Communication Software 8.2.4 Remote Procedure Call 8.2.5 Distributed Shared Memory 8.2.6 Multicomputer Scheduling 8.2.7 Load Balancing 8.3 VIRTUALIZATION 8.3.1 Requirements for Virtualization 8.3.2 Type 1 Hypervisors 8.3.3 Type 2 Hypervisors 8.3.4 Paravirtualization 8.3.5 Memory Virtualization 8.3.6 I/O Virtualization 8.3.7 Virtual Appliances 8.3.8 Virtual Machines on Multicore CPUs 8.3.9 Licensing Issues 8.4 DISTRIBUTED SYSTEMS 8.4.1 Network Hardware 8.4.2 Network Services and Protocols 8.4.3 Document-Based Middleware 8.4.4 File System-Based Middleware 8.4.5 Object-Based Middleware 8.4.6 Coordination-Based Middleware 8.5 RESEARCH ON MULTIPLE PROCESSOR SYSTEMS 8.6 SUMMARY 9 SECURITY 9.1 THE SECURITY ENVIRONMENT 9.1.1 Threats 9.1.2 Intruders 9.1.3 Accidental Data Loss 9.2 BASICS OF CRYPTOGRAPHY 9.2.1 Secret-Key Cryptography 9.2.2 Public-Key Cryptography 9.2.3 One-Way Functions 9.2.4 Digital Signatures 9.2.5 Trusted Platform Module 9.3 PROTECTION MECHANISMS 9.3.1 Protection Domains 9.3.2 Access Control Lists 9.3.3 Capabilities 9.3.4 Trusted systems 9.3.5 Trusted Computing Base 9.3.6 Formal Models of Secure Systems 9.3.7 Multilevel Security 9.3.8 Covert Channels 9.4 AUTHENTICATION 9.4.1 Authentication Using Passwords 9.4.2 Authentication Using a Physical Object 9.4.3 Authentication Using Biometrics 9.5 INSIDER ATTACKS 9.5.1 Logic Bombs 9.5.2 Trap Doors 9.5.3 Login Spoofing 9.6 EXPLOITING CODE BUGS 9.6.1 Buffer Overflow Attacks 9.6.2 Format String Attacks 9.6.3 Return to libc Attacks 9.6.4 Integer Overflow Attacks 9.6.5 Code Injection Attacks 9.6.6 Privilege Escalation Attacks 9.7 MALWARE 9.7.1 Trojan Horses 9.7.2 Viruses 9.7.3 Worms 9.7.4 Spyware 9.7.5 Rootkits 9.8 DEFENSES 9.8.1 Firewalls 9.8.2 Antivirus and Anti-Antivirus Techniques 9.8.3 Code Signing 9.8.4 Jailing 9.8.5 Model-Based Intrusion Detection 9.8.6 Encapsulating Mobile Code 9.8.7 Java Security 9.9 RESEARCH ON SECURITY 9.10 SUMMARY 10 CASE STUDY 1: LINUX 10.1 HISTORY OF UNIX AND LINUX 10.1.1 UNICS 10.1.2 PDP-11 UNIX 10.1.3 Portable UNIX 10.1.4 Berkeley UNIX 10.1.5 Standard UNIX 10.1.6 MINIX 10.1.7 Linux 10.2 OVERVIEW OF LINUX 10.2.1 Linux Goals 10.2.2 Interfaces to Linux 10.2.3 The Shell 10.2.4 Linux Utility Programs 10.2.5 Kernel Structure 10.3 PROCESSES IN LINUX 10.3.1 Fundamental Concepts 10.3.2 Process Management System Calls in Linux 10.3.3 Implementation of Processes and Threads in Linux 10.3.4 Scheduling in Linux 10.3.5 Booting Linux 10.4 MEMORY MANAGEMENT IN LINUX 10.4.1 Fundamental Concepts 10.4.2 Memory Management System Calls in Linux 10.4.3 Implementation of Memory Management in Linux 10.4.4 Paging in Linux 10.5 INPUT/OUTPUT IN LINUX 10.5.1 Fundamental Concepts 10.5.2 Networking 10.5.3 Input/Output System Calls in Linux 10.5.4 Implementation of Input/Output in Linux 10.5.5 Modules in Linux 10.6 THE LINUX FILE SYSTEM 10.6.1 Fundamental Concepts 10.6.2 File System Calls in Linux 10.6.3 Implementation of the Linux File System 10.6.4 NFS: The Network File System 10.7 SECURITY IN LINUX 10.7.1 Fundamental Concepts 10.7.2 Security System Calls in Linux 10.7.3 Implementation of Security in Linux 10.8 SUMMARY 11 CASE STUDY 2: WINDOWS VISTA 11.1 HISTORY OF WINDOWS VISTA 11.1.1 1980s: MS-DOS 11.1.2 1990s: MS-DOS-based Windows 11.1.3 2000s: NT-based Windows 11.1.4 Windows Vista 11.2 PROGRAMMING WINDOWS VISTA 11.2.1 The Native NT Application Programming Interface 11.2.2 The Win32 Application Programming Interface 11.2.3 The Windows Registry 11.3 SYSTEM STRUCTURE 11.3.1 Operating System Structure 11.3.2 Booting Windows Vista 11.3.3 Implementation of the Object Manager 11.3.4 Subsystems, DLLs, and User-mode Services 11.4 PROCESSES AND THREADS IN WINDOWS VISTA 11.4.1 Fundamental Concepts 11.4.2 Job, Process, Thread and Fiber Management API Calls 11.4.3 Implementation of Processes and Threads 11.5 MEMORY MANAGEMENT 11.5.1 Fundamental Concepts 11.5.2 Memory Management System Calls 11.5.3 Implementation of Memory Management 11.6 CACHING IN WINDOWS VISTA 11.7 INPUT/OUTPUT IN WINDOWS VISTA 11.7.1 Fundamental Concepts 11.7.2 Input/Output API Calls 11.7.3 Implementation of I/O 11.8 THE WINDOWS NT FILE SYSTEM 11.8.1 Fundamental Concepts 11.8.2 Implementation of the NT File System 11.9 SECURITY IN WINDOWS VISTA 11.9.1 Fundamental Concepts 11.9.2 Security API Calls 11.9.3 Implementation of Security 11.10 SUMMARY 12 CASE STUDY 3: SYMBIAN OS 12.1 THE HISTORY OF SYMBIAN OS 12.1.1 Symbian OS Roots: Psion and EPOC 12.1.2 Symbian OS Version 6 12.1.3 Symbian OS Version 7 12.1.4 Symbian OS Today 12.2 AN OVERVIEW OF SYMBIAN OS 12.2.1 Object Orientation 12.2.2 Microkernel Design 12.2.3 The Symbian OS Nanokernel 12.2.4 Client/Server Resource Access 12.2.5 Features of a Larger Operating System 12.2.6 Communication and Multimedia 12.3 PROCESSES AND THREADS IN SYMBIAN OS 12.3.1 Threads and Nanothreads 12.3.2 Processes 12.3.3 Active Objects 12.3.4 Interprocess Communication 12.4 MEMORY MANAGEMENT 12.4.1 Systems with No Virtual Memory 12.4.2 How Symbian OS Addresses Memory 12.5 INPUT AND OUTPUT 12.5.1 Device Drivers 12.5.2 Kernel Extensions 12.5.3 Direct Memory Access 12.5.4 Special Case: Storage Media 12.5.5 Blocking I/O 12.5.6 Removable Media 12.6 STORAGE SYSTEMS 12.6.1 File systems for Mobile Devices 12.6.2 Symbian OS File systems 12.6.3 File system Security and Protection 12.7 SECURITY IN SYMBIAN OS 12.8 COMMUNICATION IN SYMBIAN OS 12.8.1 Basic Infrastructure 12.8.2 A Closer Look at the Infrastructure 12.9 SUMMARY 13 OPERATING SYSTEMS DESIGN 13.1 THE NATURE OF THE DESIGN PROBLEM 13.1.1 Goals 13.1.2 Why is it Hard to Design an Operating System? 13.2 INTERFACE DESIGN 13.2.1 Guiding Principles 13.2.2 Paradigms 13.2.3 The System Call Interface 13.3 IMPLEMENTATION 13.3.1 System Structure 13.3.2 Mechanism versus Policy 13.3.3 Orthogonality 13.3.4 Naming 13.3.5 Binding Time 13.3.6 Static versus Dynamic Structures 13.3.7 Top-Down versus Bottom-Up Implementation 13.3.8 Useful Techniques 13.4 PERFORMANCE 13.4.1 Why Are Operating Systems Slow? 13.4.2 What Should Be Optimized? 13.4.3 Space-Time Trade-offs 13.4.4 Caching 13.4.5 Hints 13.4.6 Exploiting Locality 13.4.7 Optimize the Common Case 13.5 PROJECT MANAGEMENT 13.5.1 The Mythical Man Month 13.5.2 Team Structure 13.5.3 The Role of Experience 13.5.4 No Silver Bullet 13.6 TRENDS IN OPERATING SYSTEM DESIGN 13.6.1 Virtualization 13.6.2 Multicore Chips 13.6.3 Large Address Space Operating Systems 13.6.4 Networking 13.6.5 Parallel and Distributed Systems 13.6.6 Multimedia 13.6.7 Battery-Powered Computers 13.6.8 Embedded Systems 13.6.9 Sensor Nodes 13.7 SUMMARY 14 READING LIST AND BIBLIOGRAPHY 14.1 SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING 14.1.1 Introduction and General Works 14.1.2 Processes and Threads 14.1.3 Memory Management 14.1.4 Input/Output 14.1.5 File Systems 14.1.6 eadlocks 14.1.7 Multimedia Operating Systems 14.1.8 Multiple Processor Systems 14.1.9 ecurity 14.1.10 Linux 14.1.11 Windows Vista 14.1.12 The Symbian OS 14.1.13 Design Principles 14.2 ALPHABETICAL BIBLIOGRAPHY INDEX Table of Contents
Get Modern Operating Systems, 3rd Edition by Andrew S. Tanenbaum, Vrije University, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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