Table of Contents
PART ONE Literacy in the 21st Century 1
Chapter 1 Becoming an Effective Literacy Teacher 4
PLAN: Preview the Learning Outcomes 4
Principle 1: Effective Teachers Understand How Students Learn 6
Behaviorism 6
Constructivism 6
Sociolinguistics 8
Information Processing 10
MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 1.1 11
Principle 2: Effective Teachers Support Students’ Use of the Cueing Systems 11
The Phonological System 12
The Syntactic System 13
The Semantic System 13
The Pragmatic System 14
MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 1.2 14
Principle 3: Effective Teachers Create a Community of Learners 14
Characteristics of a Classroom Community 15
How to Create the Classroom Culture 16
MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 1.3 16
Principle 4: Effective Teachers Adopt a Balanced Approach to Instruction 16
MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 1.4 19
Principle 5: Effective Teachers Address Standards 19
The Common Core State Standards 19
MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 1.5 20
Principle 6: Effective Teachers Scaffold Students’ Reading and Writing 21
Modeled Reading and Writing 22
Shared Reading and Writing 23
Interactive Reading and Writing 23
Guided Reading and Writing 23
Independent Reading and Writing 24
MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 1.6 24
Principle 7: Effective Teachers Organize for Instruction 24
Guided Reading 25
Basal Reading Programs 25
Literature Focus Units 25
Literature Circles 25
Reading and Writing Workshop 25
MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 1.7 28
Principle 8: Effective Teachers Differentiate Instruction 28
MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 1.8 29
Principle 9: Effective Teachers Link Instruction and Assessment 29
The Instruction–Assessment Cycle 30
Classroom Assessment Tools 31
High-Stakes Tests 31
MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 1.9 31
REVIEW: Teaching Reading and Writing 32
Evaluate & Reflect 32
References 33
Chapter 2 The Reading and Writing Processes 36
PLAN: Preview the Learning Outcomes 36
VIGNETTE: The Reading Process in Action 36
The Reading Process 39
Stage 1: Prereading 41
Stage 2: Reading 42
Stage 3: Responding 44
Stage 4: Exploring 46
Stage 5: Applying 47
MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 2.1 47
The Writing Process 48
Stage 1: Prewriting 48
Stage 2: Drafting 50
Stage 3: Revising 51
Stage 4: Editing 52
Stage 5: Publishing 55
MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 2.2 58
The Writer’s Craft 58
Ideas 58
Organization 58
Voice 59
Word Choice 59
Sentence Fluency 59
Conventions 59
Presentation 60
MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 2.3 61
Reading and Writing Are Reciprocal Processes 61
Comparing the Two Processes 61
Classroom Connections 61
MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 2.4 62
Literacy Strategies 63
Reading Strategies 63
Digital Reading Strategies 63
Writing Strategies 64
Strategy Instruction 64
MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 2.5 65
REVIEW: Teaching the Reading and Writing Processes 66
Evaluate & Reflect 66
References 67
Chapter 3 Assessing Literacy Development 70
PLAN: Preview the Learning Outcomes 70
VIGNETTE: Mrs. McNeal Does Second-Quarter Assessments 70
Classroom Assessment 75
Step 1: Planning for Assessment 75
Step 2: Monitoring Students’ Progress 75
Step 3: Evaluating Students’ Learning 78
Step 4: Reflecting on Students’ Learning 79
MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 3.1 80
Diagnostic Tests 80
Determining Students’ Reading Levels 81
Diagnosing Students’ Strengths and Weaknesses 86
MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 3.2 91
High-Stakes Testing 91
Problems With High-Stakes Testing 92
Preparing for Standardized Tests 93
The Politics of High-Stakes Testing 96
MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 3.3 96
Portfolio Assessment 96
Collecting Work in Portfolios 97
Involving Students in Self-Assessment 97
Showcasing Students’ Portfolios 99
MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 3.4 99
REVIEW: Assessing Literacy Development 99
Evaluate & Reflect 100
References 101
PART TWO Components of Literacy Development 103
Chapter 4 The Youngest Readers and Writers 106
PLAN: Preview the Learning Outcomes 106
VIGNETTE: K–3 Students’ Literacy Development 106
Nurturing Children’s Oral Language Development 111
Oral Language Activities 111
Learning a Second Language 112
The Link Between Oral Language and Literacy 113
Assessing Children’s Oral Language 114
MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 4.1 114
Fostering an Interest in Literacy 114
Concepts About Print 114
Concepts About Words 115
Concepts About the Alphabet 116
Assessing Children’s Concepts About Written Language 119
MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 4.2 119
How Children Develop as Readers and Writers 120
Stage 1: Emergent Reading and Writing 120
Stage 2: Beginning Reading and Writing 121
Stage 3: Fluent Reading and Writing 123
MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 4.3 125
Instructional Practices 130
Morning Message 130
Shared Reading 133
Language Experience Approach 134
Interactive Writing 136
Manuscript Handwriting 137
Writing Centers 138
MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 4.4 139
REVIEW: Teaching the Youngest Readers and Writers 139
Evaluate & Reflect 140
References 140
Chapter 5 Cracking the Alphabetic Code 142
PLAN: Preview the Learning Outcomes 142
VIGNETTE: First Grade Phonics Instruction 142
Phonemic Awareness 146
Phonemic Awareness Strategies 147
Teaching Phonemic Awareness 147
Assessing Children’s Phonemic Awareness 154
Why Phonemic Awareness Is Important 155
MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 5.1 155
Phonics 155
Phonics Concepts 156
Teaching Phonics 160
Assessing Students’ Phonics Knowledge 165
The Role of Phonics in a Balanced Literacy Program 166
MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 5.2 166
Spelling 166
Stages of Spelling Development 166
Teaching Spelling 171
Weekly Spelling Tests 175
Assessing Students’ Spelling 177
The Controversy About Spelling Instruction 178
MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 5.3 179
REVIEW: Assisting Students in Cracking the Alphabetic Code 179
Evaluate & Reflect 180
References 180
Chapter 6 Developing Fluent Readers and Writers 182
Plan: Preview the Learning Outcomes 182
VIGNETTE: High-Frequency Words 182
Reading Fluency 186
Automatic Reading 186
Reading Speed 193
Prosody 194
Assessing Reading Fluency 195
MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 6.1 197
Writing Fluency 198
Automatic Writing 198
Writing Speed 199
Writer’s Voice 200
Assessing Writing Fluency 201
MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 202
Dysfluent Students 202
Older Dysfluent Readers 203
Older Dysfluent Writers 204
Obstacles to Fluency 206
MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 6.3 212
REVIEW: Developing Fluent Readers and Writers 212
Evaluate & Reflect 212
References 213
Chapter 7 Expanding Academic Vocabulary 216
PLAN: Preview the Learning Outcomes 216
VIGNETTE: The Word Wizards Club 216
Academic Vocabulary 220
Three Tiers of Words 220
Levels of Word Knowledge 222
Word Consciousness 223
MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 7.1 225
Word-Study Concepts 225
Multiple Meanings of Words 225
Synonyms: Words With Similar Meanings 227
Antonyms: Words That Mean the Opposite 227
Homonyms: Words That Confuse 228
Root Words and Affixes 229
Etymologies: Word Histories 232
Figurative Meanings 233
MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 7.2 236
Teaching Students to Unlock Word Meanings 236
Word Walls 236
Explicit Instruction 238
Word-Study Activities 238
Word-Learning Strategies 241
Incidental Word Learning 243
The Role of Oral Language 244
Assessing Students’ Vocabulary Knowledge 245
MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 7.3 247
REVIEW: Expanding Students’ Academic Vocabulary 247
Evaluate & Reflect 247
References 248
Chapter 8 Promoting Comprehension: Reader Factors 250
PLAN: Preview the Learning Outcomes 250
VIGNETTE: Ms. Ali Teaches Comprehension Strategies 250
What Is Comprehension 255
Reader and Text Factors 256
Text Complexity 256
Prerequisites for Comprehension 258
MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 8.1 259
Comprehension Strategies 259
Activating Background Knowledge 260
Connecting 261
Determining Importance 261
Drawing Inferences 262
Evaluating 263
Monitoring 264
Predicting 265
Questioning 265
Repairing 266
Setting a Purpose 266
Summarizing 266
Visualizing 266
Comprehension Skills 267
MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 8.2 268
Teaching Students About Reader Factors 268
Explicit Instruction 269
Developing Comprehension Through Reading 273
Assessing Reader Factors 278
MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 8.3 280
Motivation 281
Teachers’ Role 281
Students’ Role 282
How to Engage Students 283
Assessing Motivation 284
Comparing Capable and Less Capable Students 285
MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 8.4 286
REVIEW: Teaching About Reader Factors 287
Evaluate & Reflect 287
References 288
Chapter 9 Promoting Comprehension: Text Factors 290
PLAN: Preview the Learning Outcomes 290
VIGNETTE: Reading and Writing About Frogs 290
Text Factors of Stories 294
Formats of Stories 294
Narrative Genres 295
Elements of Story Structure 299
Narrative Devices 304
Looking at the Text Factors in a Story 306
MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 9.1 306
Text Factors of Nonfiction 306
Nonfiction Genres 306
Expository Text Structures 308
Nonfiction Features 308
Looking at the Text Factors in a Nonfiction Book 311
MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 9.2 311
Text Factors of Poetry 311
Formats of Poetry Books 311
Poetic Forms 313
Poetic Devices 316
Looking at the Text Factors in a Book of Poetry 317
MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 9.3 317
Teaching About Text Factors 317
Mini-lessons 318
Comprehension Strategies 318
Reading and Writing Activities 319
Assessing Text Factors 320
MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 9.4 320
REVIEW: Facilitating Students’ Comprehension of Text Factors 320
Evaluate & Reflect 321
References 321
PART THREE Organizing for Instruction 325
Chapter 10 Organizing for Instruction 328
PLAN: Preview the Learning Outcomes 328
VIGNETTE: A Yearlong Author Study 328
Conducting Guided Reading Lessons 332
Components 332
Reading Strategies 333
Instructional Materials 334
Applying the Reading Process 334
Managing Guided Reading 334
MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 10.1 334
Teaching With Basal Reading Programs 335
Components 335
Instructional Materials 337
Applying the Reading Process 338
Managing a Basal Reading Program 339
MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 10.2 340
Teaching With Literature Focus Units 340
Steps in Developing a Unit 341
Units Featuring a Picture Book 343
Units Featuring a Novel 343
Units Featuring a Genre 343
Units Featuring an Author 345
Managing Literature Focus Units 346
MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 10.3 346
Orchestrating Literature Circles 346
Key Features of Literature Circles 346
Implementing Literature Circles 350
Using Literature Circles With Young Children 351
Applying the Reading Process 351
Managing Literature Circles 352
MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 10.4 352
Implementing Reading and Writing Workshop 353
Reading Workshop 354
Applying the Reading Process 358
Writing Workshop 359
Applying the Writing Process 361
Managing a Workshop Classroom 362
MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 10.5 363
REVIEW: Organizing for Instruction 363
Evaluate & Reflect 364
References 364
Chapter 11 Differentiating for Success 366
PLAN: Preview the Learning Outcomes 366
VIGNETTE: Classroom Interventions 366
Ways to Differentiate Instruction 371
Grouping for Instruction 372
Tiered Activities 374
MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 11.1 384
Struggling Readers and Writers 384
Struggling Readers 384
Struggling Writers 385
High-Quality Instruction 385
Interventions 389
MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 11.2 394
REVIEW: Differentiating Literacy Instruction 394
Evaluate & Reflect 394
References 395
PART FOUR Compendium of Instructional Procedures 435
Anticipation Guides 436
Book Talks 437
Choral Reading 438
Cloze Procedure 439
Collaborative Books 440
Double-Entry Journals 441
Exclusion Brainstorming 442
Grand Conversations 443
Hot Seat 444
Interactive Read-Alouds 445
Interactive Writing 447
KWL Charts 448
Language Experience Approach 450
Learning Logs 452
Making Words 454
Mini-lessons 455
Open-Mind Portraits 456
Possible Sentences 457
Prereading Plan 458
Question-Answer-Relationships 460
Chapter 12 Reading and Writing Across the Curriculum 398
PLAN: Preview the Learning Outcomes 398
VIGNETTE: Third Graders’ Multigenre Projects 398
Learning Tools 402
Reading to Learn 403
Writing to Learn 405
MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 12.1 408
Demonstrating Learning 408
Reports 409
Essays 411
Poems 411
Multigenre Projects 413
MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 12.2 415
Content Area Textbooks 415
Textbook Features 415
Making Textbooks More Comprehensible 416
Learning How to Study 418
Why Aren’t Content Area Textbooks Enough? 421
MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 12.3 421
Thematic Units 421
How to Develop a Unit 422
A First Grade Unit on Trees 425
A Fourth Grade Unit on Desert Ecosystems 425
A Sixth Grade Unit on Ancient Egypt 426
MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 12.4 426
REVIEW: Reading and Writing Across the Curriculum 433
Evaluate & Reflect 433
References 434
Quickwriting 461
RAFT 463
Readers Theatre 464
Reading Logs 465
Revising Groups 466
Rubrics 468
Running Records 470
Semantic Feature Analysis 471
Shared Reading 472
Sketch-to-Stretch 473
Story Boards 474
Story Retelling 476
Sustained Silent Reading 478
Tea Party 479
Think-Alouds 480
Word Sorts 481
Word Walls 483
Glossary 487
Index 493
